Udànavarga Home Page   Next Section

Study 1: Orthographical Sanskritization

Prof. Franklin Edgerton in the Introduction to his Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammer and Dictionary (BHSG 1.56) made the significant statement that ßit is ... certain that some Sanskrit-appearing features [in BHS] are orthographic only; the words were pronounced as in Middle Indic.û ⁰¹

This first study attempts to show in detail how a metrical analysis of the verses of Udànavarga can help us to restore the way the verses were pronounced, over and against the way that they have been written in the text as it appears now. ⁰²

This will be done by considering 4 ways that the text has been rewritten to make it appear more Sanksritic than it really was, they can be enumerated as follows:

There are a couple of other matters that have to be dealt with in the Introduction before we can move on to a consideration of the metres themselves, they are:

i: -ava- = o

In the Udànavarga we can see that there are many cases where bhava- (ÛÛ) has been written, but the metre demands that the syllable be scanned as bho- (Ü). In fact it seems that the words with this component were favourites in critical positions, where we can be sure of what the weight is in these positions.

In the text I have scanned these expansions as being equivalent to one heavy syllable, and have identified them by marking them in green and underlining them, thus:

which, for the metre to be correct we need to read as:

Here is a list of the words and places where these expansions are found:

bhavati 63c, 104e, 105bd, 106bd, 134c, 135c, 144c, 146a, 147c, 207c, 209d, 214e, 217d, 221a, 227c, 235d, 243a, 279a, 281cd, 346d - 351d (6 verses), 352c, 368d, 373d, 421.iid, 464a - 467a (4 verses), 475d, 546c, 548c, 655c, 657f, 674c, 700c, 703a, 765d, 875a, 858b, 881c, 890ad, 966a, 970 cd. bhavata 109ab, 369d. This gives a total of 55 occurrences.

I have therefore read bhavati as having 2 syllables (bhoti) in non-critical positions in the following places: 14c, 564d, 691d.

Note that there are a number of places where bhavati must be scanned as having 3 syllables for the metre to be correct. In Pàëi the distinction of the written form is usually maintained, where bhavati may appear as hoti, for instance, but the distinction in this text has been lost because of the Sanskritisation. ⁰³

We should read bhavati (3 syllables) at the following verses: 13c, 147d, 269b, 280iia, 281b, 291.id, 291.iid, 421.iib, 434a, 898d, 905d (a total of 11 occurrences). -bhava- also counts as having its full complement of syllables in the following compounds: yathàvibhavato 227b; bhavatÔùõàpradàlanam 248d; prabhavati 740a; vikùãna-bhavatÔùõasya 916a, 917a; ucchinnabhavatÔùõasya 918a, 919a.

Occasionally we find that even in the same verse the word is scanned as 2 syllables in one place, and one in another: ⁰⁴

cf. 281bcd, 421iibd.

Another instance of the same type of expansion is abhijÿàvyavasito 1008b, which must be read as abhijÿàvyosito.

ii: -aya- = e

We occasionally find that -aya- must also be scanned as an expansion from -e-, as in the following: deèayati = deèeti 190c; bhàvayati = bhàveti 267d; bhàvayata = bhàveta 344b.

I therefore read varjayate = vrajete 463c; deèayati = deèeti 993e, which makes more sense metrically

There are many other Sanskritisations where a word which has a by-form in Middle Indic, has been regularised to its Sanskrit form in the text, against the metre. Again here we can see that this is merely an orthographic device, and cannot have represented the way the words were pronounced.

There are various cases where this occurs: api = pi: 30b; 106a; 765c; 855; iti = ti 290b; 680d - 683d (3 verses); iva = va 56a; 68f; 112d; 120d; 213b; 214b; 370d; 398c; 438b; 602b; 702b; 721a. ⁰⁵

We also see orthographical Sanskritization in words where there are syllables that do not make position. ⁰⁶ In Indian verse composition rhythmical patterns are built up through the alternation of light and heavy syllables. To define the weight of the syllables it is necessary to take into consideration 2 factors: the natural length of the vowel, and what follows it.

If the vowel is long (à, ã, å, ®, e, ai, o, & au) normally the syllable will count as heavy. If the vowel is short (a, i, u, Ô, & ), then metrical weight depends on what follows it. If it is followed by another vowel, or by a simple consonant, it will be be light in weight; if it is followed by a conjunct normally it will be heavy.

However, certain conjunct consonants do not make the preceding syllable heavy as expected, they are then said to be not making position. In the Udànavarga the most frequent cases of this are found when a consonant is in conjunction with the semi-vowel sound -r- .

In this section I have examined all the conjuncts with -r- that may be liable to fail in this regard, and have made a list of the result. ⁰⁷ In the commentary to the text, however, to prevent a profusion of notes I only normally identify the conjuncts that have failed to make position, unless there is a need to explain why I have identified one variation over another.

i: br

As in Pàëi br- regularly does not make position as we can see when it appears in metrically critical positions, where the weight of the syllable is assured. In the text that follows we can see that br- in bràhmaõ- and brahma- regularly fails to make position. ⁰⁸

I count br- as failing to make position in the following words: e.g. bràhmaõa 1022ib; bràhmaõam 1017d; bràhmaõaþ 362b, 724d, 964b, 965b, 1024d, 1026b, 1038d; èramaõabràhmaõàþ 957b, 958b, 959b, 1038d;

I have also therefore, when entering the metrical markings in non-critical positions, counted it as not making position in the following words: coùitabrahmacaryaþ 968c; brahmacaryavàn 244b, 891b; brahmaõaþ 956d, 969d, 978d; bràhmaõaü 970af, 971d - 977d (7 verses), 979d - 992d (14 verses), 993f, 994d - 1001d, 1002f, 1003d - 1012d, 1013a-d; 1014a-d; 1015a-d; 1016d, 1017id, 1017iid, 1020d, 1021id; bràhmaõasya 1026a; bràhmaõasyedÔèam 1039a; bràhmaõà 1018d, 1019if, 1019iif.

ii: èr

èr makes position in: ananuèrutaü 261a; alpaèruto 465a, 466a; bahuèrutaü 468a; bahuèrutam 562b, 974b; bahuèrutasya 795b, 796b; bahuèrutàþ 780b; bahuèrutaiþ 539b; bahuèruto 464a, 467a; mièro 653b.

It seems therefore that words from Ñ èru normally make position, ⁰⁹ therefore I also count it making position in the following non-critical positions: aèrutvà 461c; bahuèrutyena 903b; èrutaü 458a; èrutamàtratà 582b; èrutvà 104c; èråyate 474.iia.

èr fails to make position in the following words: gautamaèràvakàþ 313b - 330b (18 verses); èràvakaþ 692d; èrutvà 541c; èreyaþ 537d; èreùñhaü 218a; èraiùñhyaü 542c; èrotriyau 724b, 1024b, 1025b; samyaksaübuddhaèràvakàþ 379d. It seems from this that words with èràvak- (written sàvak- in Pàëi) do not make position normally, even though they are derived from Ñ èru.

As it appears that èr is likely to fail to make position in most words, I also count it as not making position in the following verses, where it occurs in non-critical positions: aèraddhaè 723a; aèràddhebhiþ 538a; mièrà 743b; vijÿànaèrutaü 475c; vièreõayitvà 244c, 891c; èuèruùur 219c; èraddhà 222a; èraddhàsyanti 453a; ; èrotreõa 474.ia; èramaõaþ 956d, 969d; èramaõo 964a, 965a; èreùñham 290b; saddharmaèravaõe 225b.

iii: pr

The places where pr in this text makes, or fails to make, position is not so easy to define, and it seems that it may have been counted or not counted as making position according to convenience. ¹⁰ In this regard compare the verses found at 684 & 685, where pr fails to make position in line a; but does make position in line c! A similar situation occurs at 262cd.

Roughly, however, we can see from the analysis that follows that pr normally makes position when it is in the middle of a word (including compounds), which is what we would expect, as these words produce gemination even in Pàëi when in medial position.

There are a significant number of occasions, however, where it unexpectedly makes position at the beginning of a word also, where simplification of the cluster, and consequent loss of metrical weight, would be the rule in Pàëi. We may regard these forms as being completely Sanskritised during the redaction of the verses: ¹¹

a: pr makes position in the following places:

Medials: aprakampayaþ 366b; apramattaþ 307b; apramatto 841a; apriyam 198b; kàyapradoùaü 169a; cirapravàsinaü 141a; niþsaraõaprajÿo 473c; notkuñukaprahàõaü 955c; buddhapratibhàsite 692c; viprasannaþ 306b; viprahàya 344a, 790a, 994a;

vairaprasaïgo 297c; saüyojanavipramuktaþ 1046d, 1047d; satpuruùapraèastàþ 216b; saprajÿaþ 158c, 539c, 551a, 553a, 555a; saprajÿo 153a; sugatapradeèitaþ 262d; hetuprabhavaü 354a; I therefore take -pr- as making position in sarvapràõeùu 853c also.

Initials: praceùyate 368d; prativaèàè 271c; pratãtaþ 211c; prapaÿcitaü 751a; pramodate 685c; praèocati 684c; prasahate 711ie - 716 (7 verses); pràjÿaþ 538c; priyaþ 147d; prãtisukhaü 863d.

b: From what follows we can see that the places where pr does not make position are predominantly at the beginning of a word, but sometimes it fails unexpectedly in middle position also:

Medials: apramattasya 89d; asthipràkàraü 353a; nirvàõapràptaye 195b, 219b; puõyaprekùã 537b.

Initials: pramattacàriõas 21a prajàþ 604b; prajÿà 250a; pratiråpaü 878a; pratyåhaèatàni 767a; pravrajitaþ 564c; pràptaye 262d, 267d, 856d; pràõinàm 82d; pretya 684a, 685a.

I also take prathamaü 482a, 483a; pravrajyà 234c; praharen 1026a; & pràptavyaü 606a; as not making position to satisfy the metre.

iv: other conjuncts

Because of the well-known weakness of the semi-vowels y, l, & v, I made a cursory inspection of the conjuncts with these consonants in critical position, ¹² but was only able to find 4 places where it seems certain that they fail to make position, they are found at: tv in 132c, giving jagaõa in an Old Gãti verse; kl- in kliùñaü at 684d in a Vaitàlãya opening; dv- in dvesaü 935a, in a Aupacchandasaka cadence; sn- in sneham 371a, in a Vaitàlãya opening.

All of the other conjuncts seem to make position. Below is a list of their occurrence divided according to the conjunct:

tr: atra 184c; ubhayatra 684b, 685b; tatra 354b, 370c; duratikramàþ 799d. paratra 118d, 181d, 217d, 286d, 762d, 765d; yatra 53b; èatrubhåtam 767b; sarvatra 757c; sahasràõi 185a; sukhatrayam 149b; sucitrà 30a.
dr: bhadrikà 539d; samudramadhye 200a.

dhr: adhruvam 587b.

kr: atikramet 740f; atikrameta 417b; anantavikramaü 755c; kriyate 652b; duratikramam 1020ia, 1020iia; duratikramàþ 72f; dharmacakraü 263a; samatikramaþ 776b; samatikramam 643b; so 'tikramej 306d.

vr: parivrajet 83d, 283d, 878f, 882f, 994b; pravrajitaþ 564c.

sr: parisravàõi 298c.

Although it appears that most of the other conjuncts do in fact make position, in a limited number of places, for reasons explained in the commentary it seems better to take them as not making position in the following words (these differ from the 4 instances listed above as the scanning of the syllables is uncertain):

tr- in traividyo 208.iia, giving the pathyà cadence; -dv- in vigatadveùebhyo in 347b, giving the pathyà cadence; dv- in dveùaè 355c, giving the pathyà cadence; sv- in svake 563a, in a Triùñubh break, to avoid the heavy 6th syllable.

v: cch

A further case where we have orthographical Sanskritization is in the writing of cch, which makes the previous syllable heavy, where ch is required for the metre to be correct, as in: cchandam 52d & hiraõyacchannaþ 702b; cch is also occasionally written unnecessarily at the beginning of a pàda, as in: cchinnàkùaþ 100c & cchàyà 834f; it is also written after anuèvara: cchràmaõyàrthasya 105d.

I therefore take it as not making position in cchitvà 51c; cchannaü 162c; cchandraü 671c, 672c; vastucchinnasya 912b - 919b (8 verses); & ucchinnabhavatÔùõasya 918a, 919a.

Sometimes svarabhakti (epenthetic) vowels that have been excluded from the orthographic representation of the text also need to be reinstated, and then given their full value. ¹³ I have identified svarabhakti vowels at the following places: utpàdavⁱyadharmiõaþ 3b; ar^ahatàm 187a, 219a; divⁱyaü 216c; brahmacarⁱyaü 235d; sⁱyàn 305c.

In the Middle Indic dialects hiatus between words is perfectly acceptable, and quite often found, as a glance at nearly any Pàëi text will show. In Classical Sanskrit, however, haitus is normally avoided. In this section I have examined all the cases of external vowel sandhi to find out how this relates to the pronounciation of the text.

Hiatus occurs in the following places: ka ànanda 4a; garbha eke 9a; rathakàra iva 56a; kùãrapaka iva 68f; ya etàü 74a; chinnàkùa iva 101d; dÔùñadhàrmika eko 109a; tãvra
utpadyate 127c; ya ihàkùeõa 184b; bhasmàcchanna ivànalaþ 213d; èreùñha uktaþ 218d; nànurakta iti 231a; sa ucyate 243d; sthavira ucyate 244d; ya àryam 267c; jÿàtvàlpajÿàta iti 280.iic; careta eùaõàm 284d; sa imaü 302e, 335d, 337d, 339d; sa imàü 336d, 338d, 340d; ùaùñha adhipatã 352a; 'lpamatsya iva 357d; hrada iva 366c; ka imàü 367a; kùãrapaka iva 370d; ya udàcchinatty 394a, 933a, 945a, 946a; abalàèva iva 398c; ca asajyamànam 417c; bàla eva 559d; bhavyaråpa iva 602b; sa eko 607d; ya evaü 608c; vipàka iti 680d, 681d, 682d, 683d; madhya ivodakasya 689d; lohàrdhamàùa iva 702b; èràddha àrabdhavãryavàn 711.iid; nàga iva 721a; ya icchet 759d; iùukàra iva 817d; yaèa iha 840c; ya imàü 1001a; èuddha ity 1025d.

Most of these examples are within the normal limits of the metre, but there are a number of forms included in the list where the metre is incorrect as it stands, and could be corrected by the simple expedient of completing the Sanskritisation of the text. Examples of this are:

There are a few more examples where the metre could be corrected by completing the Sanskritisation, but it would also be possible to correct the metre by dropping the Sanskritisation:

As in the Pàëi texts a common feature of the verses of the Udànavarga is the resolution of one (presumed) heavy syllable into 2 light syllables.

Resolution cannot occur in 2nd or 8th position in a øloka, but apart from that it can occur anywhere else, the most common position being the opening syllables of the line.

Below is a table listing the occurences of resolution found in this text according to the position and metre:

It can be seen from this that in this text resolution at the 1st is quite common in both of the main metres; and at the 6th it is common in the øloka. Anywhere else resolution can only be counted as incidental. ¹⁴

It may be useful to show how all of this affects the text, and we can best do that by giving some examples with the written and pronounced form side by side. ¹⁵ I include the metrical markings so that we can see how the metre can help guide us in this reconstruction of the pronounciation of the text: